| [1] | Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Working Group II, Climate Change 1995: Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change: Scientific and Technical Analyses, Chapter 17,"Financial Services" (K.M. Clark, et al), pp. 539-560, Cambridge University Press. |
| [2] | A variety of climate-related impacts on the insurance industry are summarized in J. Leggett. 1993. Climate Change and the Insurance Industry: Solidarity Among the Risk Community, Greenpeace International; Leggett, J. 1994. Climate Change. Presented to the 26th Annual Meeting of the Reinsurance Association of America and Leggett, J (ed.). 1196. Climate Change and the Financial Sector, Gerling Akademie Verlag, Munich |
| [3] | B. Nelson."Insurance Coverage and Climate Change". The Miami Herald. June 19, 1996. |
| [4] | J.N. Gordes. (n/d)."Climate Change and the Insurance Industry", Environmental Energy Solutions, Riverton, CT. |
| [5] | Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Working Group II, Climate Change 1995: Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change: Scientific and Technical Analyses, Chapter 17,"Human Population Health" (M. Ando, et al), pp. 561-586, Cambridge University Press. |
| [6] | R. Watson. 1996."Climate Change". World Bank, Washington, D.C. |
| [7] | For a detailed illustration of this sentiment, see E. Durand, 1996."Global Warming: Implications for Risk Assessment--When We Know for Sure, Will it be Too Late?" The Australian Insurance Institute Journal 19(1): 28-30. |
| [8] | Statement of Environmental Commitment by the Insurance Industry, signed by 22 insurance companies at the United Nations, 23 November 1995, Geneva, and by 36 additional companies subsequently. Countries represented: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Canada, Germany, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Russia, Singapore, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Tanzania, Thailand, and United Kingdom. |
| [9] | K.M Clark,. et al., op cit. |
| [10] | We have previously explored the connection between energy-efficient technologies and insured loss minimization in: E. Mills, 1994."Energy-Efficiency Strategies To Help Insurance Companies Respond to the Threat of Global Climate Change." Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; E. Mills, and A. Rosenfeld. 1994."Non-Energy Benefits as a Motivation for Making Energy-Efficiency Improvements." Proceedings of the 1994 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, Washington, D.C.: 4.201-4.213, and in Energy--The International Journal 21(7/8):707-720. |
| [11] | E. Mills, D. Wilson, and T.B. Johansson. 1991."Getting Started: No-Regrets Strategies for Reducing Greenhouse-Gas Emissions." Energy Policy, vol. 19(6): 526-542. [An earlier version of this work was presented at the Second World Climate Conference, Geneva, October 1990.] |
| [12] | U.S. Department of Energy. 1995. Energy Conservation Indicators. DOE/PO-0034. |
| [13] | B. Bodlund, E. Mills, T. Karlsson, and T.B. Johansson. 1989."The Challenge of Choices: Technology Options for the Swedish Electricity Sector." In Electricity: Efficient End-use and New Generation Technologies, and Their Planning Implications. T.B. Johansson, B. Bodlund, and R.H. Williams (eds.). Lund: Lund University Press: 883-947. |
| [14] | Renewable Energy: Sources for Fuels and Electricity. 1993. T.B. Johansson, H. Kelly, A. K. N. Reddy, and R. Williams (Eds.). Washington D.C.: Island Press. |
| [15] | As an illustration of the economic power of an integrated perspective, consider the case of providing illumination. An ordinary incandescent light bulb is responsible for about a ton of carbon-dioxide emissions over its lifetime. Utilizing solar photovoltaic cells is an obvious strategy for offsetting these emissions. However, at $5/peak watt and an average amount of available solar energy, a one-dollar 100-watt light bulb would require a $500 investment in solar panels. It would be far less expensive overall to power a 20-watt compact fluorescent lamp (total PV cost of ~$100), which yields the same amount of useful light but consumes much less energy. Given that the investment required for the better lamp is only ~$15, it is clearly best to implement efficiency first and then serve the remaining demand with renewables. The total first-cost savings would be $385, or nearly 80% of the renewable-only cost. |
| [16] | EPRI. 1990. Efficient Electricity Use: Estimate of Maximum Energy Savings. EPRI Report CU-6746, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA. The numbers exclude"naturally occurring savings", i.e., savings from existing standards and natural technological progress. |
| [17] | E. Mills, and A. Rosenfeld. 1994. op cit. |
| [18] | A.S. Rutkin. 1991."Electromagnetic Fields: New-Wave Coverage Issues." Best's Review, 91(11): 62-64, 98. |
| [19] | P. Berdahl. 1995."Building Energy Efficiency and Fire Safety Aspects of Reflective Coatings." Energy and Buildings 22. Elsevier Science Inc. 187-191; Berdahl, P. 1995."Pigments to Reflect the Infrared Radiation from Fire", Journal of Heat Transfer, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 117:355-358; Berdahl, P. 1995."Building Energy Efficiency and Fire Safety Aspects of Reflective Coatings", Energy and Buildings, 22:187-191. |
| [20] | George Loisos, Loisos/Ubbelohde Associates. Preliminary findings from a research project of the California Institute for Energy Efficiency entitled"Alternatives to Compressive Cooling." Personal Communication. May 28, 1996. |
| [21] | This example shows the need for systematic analysis of specific measures. Although the absence of pilot lights could enhance safety, the relationship between firing time/frequency and fire risk is not known. A disadvantage of switching to electronic ignition is that appliances cannot operate during power outages while appliances with pilot lights can. |
| [22] | M. Siminovitch and E. Page. 1996."Energy-Efficient Torchiers for Residential Applications" Center for Building Science Newsletter [Winter]. |
| [23] | R. Mestel. 1995."White Paint on a Hot Tin Roof." New Scientist, 25 March: 34-37. |
| [24] | A.H. Rosenfeld, H. Akbari, S. Bretz, B.L. Fishman, D.M. Kurn, D. Sailor, H. Taha. 1995."Mitigation of Urban Heat Islands: Materials, Utility Programs, Updates." Energy and Buildings, 22:255-265. |
| [25] | P. Berdahl. 1995. op cit. |
| [26] | Personal communication, Mark Decot, USDOE Program Manager for Cool Communities. |
| [27] | Hot water pipes that run outside the heated"envelope" of a building (e.g. in a crawlspace) lose energy and can freeze if water is not drawn for a period of time. Insulated cold water (supply) pipes save energy because water is conditioned by the temperature of the soil surrounding underground municipal supply pipelines and cools down only when the pipe comes into contact with the air in the house crawlspace. |
| [28] | D. Levick,"Insurers in State Awash in Claims Related to Water Damage". The Hartford Courant, Jan. 20, 1996. |
| [29] | Global Change, February, 1996, pp.12. |
| [30] | J. Huang. 1996."Building Science Aspects to Urban Heat Catastrophes." Poster presentation at the 1996 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, Asilomar, CA. See also, A. Meier. 1996."Preventing Urban Heat Catastrophes." Home Energy, pp. 6-7 (July/August). |
| [31] | M.A. Piette and B. Nordman. 1996."Costs and Benefits of Utility Funded Commissioning of Energy-Efficiency Measures in 16 Buildings", ASHRAE Transactions, Atlanta, GA, Vol. 102, Pt 1., (LBNL-37823). |
| [32] | R. Brady. 1995."Commissioning Services Can Reduce Professional Liability Losses." Proceedings of the Third National Conference on Building Commissioning. Portland Energy Conservation, Inc., Portland, OR. |
| [33] | R.J. Tyler. 1995."Commissioning: A Legal Perspective". Proceedings of the Third National Conference on Building Commissioning, Portland Energy Conservation, Inc., Portland, OR. |
| [34] | S. Meyers, E. Mills, A. Chen, and L. Demsetz. 1996."Building Data Visualization for Diagnostics, Operator Feedback, and Performance Optimization." ASHRAE Journal. June, pp. 63-73. |
| [35] | An excellent review is provided by R. M. Silberfeld. 1994."The Legal Impact of Indoor Air Pollution." Proceedings of the Second National Conference on Building Commissioning, Portland Energy Conservation, Inc., Portland, OR. |
| [36] | E. Mills. 1993."Efficient Lighting Programs in Europe: Cost-Effectiveness, Consumer Response, and Market Dynamics." Energy--The International Journal, 18(2):131-144. |
| [37] | The health-related observations in this paragraph are drawn from A.J. Wilkins. 1991."Health and Efficiency in Lighting Practice." Energy--The International Journal (18)2:123-129. |
| [38] | R. Sardinsky, and S. Hawthorne. 1994."LED Exit Signs: Improved Technology Leads the Way to Energy Savings." E Source Tech Update. E Source. Boulder, Colorado; E. Mills. 1993."A Graceful Exit." Newsletter of the International Association for Energy-Efficient Lighting, pp. 10-11, Stockholm, Sweden |
| [39] | A.J. Wilkins. 1991. ibid. |
| [40] | W.J. Fisk, M.J. Mendell, J.M. Daisey, D. Faulkner, A.T. Hodgson, M. Nematollahi, and J.M. Macher. 1993."Phase 1 of the California Healthy Building Study," Indoor Air 3:246Ü254. |
| [41] | Unless otherwise noted, the discussion in this section is drawn from W.J. Fisk and A.H. Rosenfeld. 1996."Improved Productivity and Health from Better Indoor Environments." Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Report (draft). |
| [42] | Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) is indicated by occupant symptoms such as headache and irritation of eyes and nose that disappear when the person experiencing them leaves the building. Five to forty percent of office building occupants report that they have frequent SBS symptoms. The causes of SBS are not yet adequately understood. |
| [43] | A. Litvak, A. Gadgil, and W.J. Fisk. 1995."Electronics Reliability and Indoor Air Quality." Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Internal Memorandum, (October). |
| [44] | A.V. Nero, and W.W. Nazaroff. 1984."Characterizing the Source of Radon Indoors." Radiation Protection Dosimetry 7: 12Ü39; A.V. Nero, M.B. Schwehr, W.W. Nazaroff, and K.L. Revzan. 1986."Distribution of Airborne Radon-222 Concentrations in U.S. Homes." Science 234: 992Ü997. |
| [45] | M. Modera, and F. Carrie. 1995."Aerosol-Based Duct Sealing Technology." Center for Building Science News. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Winter). |
| [46] | P.H. Wallman, B.S. Pedersen, R.J. Mo, W.J. Fisk, and D.T. Grimsrud. 1987."Assessment of Residential Exhaust-Air Heat Pump Applications in the United States." Energy--The International Journal 12 (6):469-484. |
| [47] | B.H. Turk, D.T. Grimsrud, J. Harrison, and R.J. Prill. 1987b. A Comparison of Indoor Air Quality in Conventional and Model Conservation Standard New Homes in the Pacific Northwest: Final Report. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Report 23429. |
| [48] | E. Vine. 1987. Air-to-Air Heat Exchangers and the Indoor Environment. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Report 22908 |
| [49] | A.J. Gadgil, D. Faulkner, and W.J. Fisk. 1993."Reduced Worker Exposure and Improved Energy Efficiency in Industrial Fume Hoods Using an Airvest." American Society for Heating, Refrigerating & Air-Conditioning Engineers. |
| [50] | H. Feustel. 1993. Hydronic Radiant Cooling--Overview and Preliminary Performance Assessment, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Report 33194. |
| [51] | J.F. Brundage, S. Robert, W.M. Ledna, D.W. Smith, and R.N. Miller. 1988."Building-Associated Risk of Febrile Acute Respiratory Diseases in Army Trainees." Journal of the American Medical Association 259 (14):2108-2112. |
| [52] | K.M. Greely, E. Mills, C.A. Goldman, R.L. Ritschard, and M.A. Jackson. 1987. Baseline Analysis of Measured Energy Consumption in Public Housing. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Report 22854. |
| [53] | The first comprehensive documents along these lines are now being published. See U.S. Department of Energy. 1996. North American Energy Measurement and Verification Protocol. DOE/EE-0081. See also, Federal Energy Management Program. 1996. Measurement and Verification Guidelines for Federal Energy Projects. DOE/GO-10096-248. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Report 38122. |
| [54] | A strategy proposed by Dr. Ashok Gadgil, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. |
| [55] | T. Wenzel. 1995. Analysis of National Pay-As-You-Drive Insurance Systems and Other Variable Driving Charges. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Report 37321. This report reviews experiences in several states and identifies technical implementation issues. |
| [56] | M. Holm. 1993. Purchasers' Requirements Dictate Development: A Study of Technology Procurement. Swedish National Board for Industrial and Technical Development, Department of Energy Efficiency, Stockholm, Sweden. |
| [57] | Real Estate Research Corporation and Equitable Real Estate Investment Management Incorporated. 1996. Emerging Trends. Chicago, IL.; Institute of Real Estate Management and Arthur Anderson. 1991. Managing the Future: Real Estate in the 1990s, Chicago, IL. |
| [58] | Real Estate Research Corporation. 1996. op cit. |
| [59] | R. deKieffer. 1995."Combustion Safety Checks: How Not to Kill Your Clients." Home Energy, pp. 19-24. |
| [60] | U.S. Department of Energy. 1994. Rebuilding Your Flooded Home: Guidelines for Incorporating Energy Efficiency. DOE-EE-0019. |
| [61] | The organization that later became UL was founded by William Henry Merrill, a Boston electrical inspector, with financial backing provided by the insurance industry. Specifically, the Chicago Board of Fire Underwriters and the Western Insurance Association provided funds to support the Merrill lab, which then became the Underwriter's Electrical Bureau. It was later renamed the Electrical Bureau of the National Board of Fire Underwriters when it received national support, and then renamed Underwriter's Laboratories, Inc., in 1901 when it was chartered in Illinois. |