Energy
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Energy and Buildings Special Issue
Published by ELSIVIER, Vol. 26, 1997. All material © ELSIVIER Press.
Introduction to special issue devoted to appliance and lighting standards
James E. McMahon, Isaac Turiel
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
1. Why a special issue?
Appliance and lighting standards have more than a twenty-year history,
originating tin reaction to oil price shocks) in Europe and the US, and then in many regions
of the world. In spite of the social, economic and environmental significance of appliance and
lighting standards, the extensive history of these standards is largely available in voluminous
legislative and technical documents, with only an occasional journal article or conference paper
accessible to a wider audience. In this special issue, we are excited to bring together an
international collection of summary documentation from a range of perspectives, presented by
some of the key participants in this history. The authors share lessons to date in the areas
of engineering, economics and policy analysis.
2. What are appliance standards?
Appliance standards are a set of procedures and regulations which prescribe the energy
performance of manufactured products, sometimes prohibiting the manufacture of products
less energy efficient than the minimum standard. The term 'standard' encompasses two possible
meanings. We separate the two uses of that term as follows: (i) a well-defined protocol (or
laboratory test procedure) by which one can obtain a relative ranking of energy efficiency among
alternative technological designs providing an energy-consuming service; and (ii) a norm (target
or mandatory limit) of energy efficiency or energy performance based upon the protocol.
3. Why are appliance standards important?
Appliances Ñ here broadly defined to include heating, cooling and lighting, as well as refrigerators,
clothes washers and other household equipmentÑaccount for most of the energy consumption in buildings, and buildings account
for much of electricity and natural gas consumption. In 1990, buildings (residential and services/commercial) used about 41% of
electricity generated world-wide, and 37% of total primary energy [1]. In industrialized countries, energy consumption by appliances
is already large, and in developing countries, such energy consumption is growing rapidly. The increase in electricity demand in
developing countries, significantly from the use of appliances in buildings, is anticipated to require an average annual investment
or new generation and distribution capacity from 1995 to 2010 of $97 billion.
Energy cost is not the only economic consideration. About 67 billion was spent in 1992 on 'white
goods' (refrigerators, freezers, cooking appliances, microwave ovens, clothes washers, clothes dryers and dishwashers)
and the expenditures are projected to grow to $77 billion per year by 2000 [3]. The world air-conditioning and refrigeration
market, valued at $40-45 billion, is expected to grow to $50 billion by 2005 C4].Appliance standards have significant economic impact,
directly affecting manufacturers, large populations of consumers andÑindirectlyÑenergy suppliers. Appliance standards have influenced
manufacturers to invest more in designs using less energy, which in turn reduces the need for new energy supplies. For electricity, in
particular, appliance standards can reduce the need for new capacity, in part because air conditioners exert disproportional influence
on peak power requirements.
Not only have appliance energy standards already resulted in significant economic benefits, the
potential for further savings is huge. Several estimates have been made of the energy savings
potential from efficiency improvements in buildings worldwide. A study commissioned by the
World Energy Congress (WEC) based on IPCC scenarios shows potential reductions in energy demand
in buildings in the OECD countries of 616% and in countries with economies in transition and
developing countries of 2544% when comparing aggressive efficiency scenarios to business-as-
usual scenarios [ 51 . Much of this savings potential is from appliances, equipment, and
lighting and much of that is achievable through energy standards.
Appliance standards also noticeably mitigate environmental emissions of carbon dioxide,
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides associated with burning fuels to provide energy. For
example, the current US appliance standards are expected to prevent 107 million tons of
carbon dioxide emissions (equivalent of 2% of US carbon emissions), prevent 286 thousand
tons of nitrogen oxide emissions, and allow 385 thousand tons of sulfur dioxide emissions
to be banked or traded in the year 2000 alone. In 1995, buildings account for about 25-30%
of global energy-related carbon dioxide emissions, contributing 10-12% of the increasing
net radiative forcing that is inducing global warming. The energy savings projected by WEC
in its aggressive efficiency scenario would cut carbon emissions in 2000 dramatically from
its business-as-usual projection [6]. In the context of policies for meeting inter national
agreements on carbon emissions, international interest in appliance labels and standards and
their harmonization is increasing.
4. What are the key issues?
Many developing and developed countries around the world are currently considering whether to
introduce appliance standards, are in the process of introducing standards, or are undertaking
modifications to existing standards. Important questions raised in the often contentious debates
occur ring in each of these countries include:
How would the standards affect the availability and quality of consumer products?
What would be the impact (costs and benefits) of standards on consumers, manufacturers,
national economies and the environment?
Under what circumstances is government intervention in the marketplace warranted?
How should the process of establishing standards be conducted?
For example, some argue that a government imposing standards interferes with the operation
of the free market, and is in conflict with the current worldwide trend toward increased reliance
on market forces. Others argue that a government imposing standards merely modifies the rules of
the competition to the benefit of all, does nothing to reduce competition, and is totally in harmony
with a nation's reliance on market forces.
This special edition does not resolve these issues. Importantly, it provides a factual foundation
of the history of appliance energy standards to date to allow readers to engage in meaningful discussions
towards their resolution.
With worldwide interest in appliance standards growing rapidly, Turiel's article [7] offers a snapshot of
the current
status, listing those countries with standards and those about to adopt standards. It shows that mandatory energy efficiency standards are in place for some appliances in Canada, China,
Korea, Mexico, the Philippines, and the United States; standards for refrigerator/freezers and water heaters will
take
effect in Australia in 1999; standards for refrigerator/freezers will take effect in the European Union in 1999;
and voluntary energy efficiency standards are in place for refrigerators in India and Brazil and air conditioners in Japan and India.
The next three articles [8-10] deal with aspects of appliance standards that must be confronted in all countries.
Appliance efficiency standards directly affect the way appliance manufacturers must design and build appliances.
Therefore, it is essential to understand the view and experiences of manufacturers who have already faced standards.
The article by Anderson and McInerney [8] gives two manufacturers' perspectives of appliance standards when faced with
the multiple challenges of reducing energy use and phasing out CFCs while satisfying consumer's demands for amenities
and low prices.
All appliance standards rely on energy testing protocols to ensure a fair and consistent measurement of energy use.
Meier and Hill [9] describe some of the energy testing procedures and the testing problems for new appliances with
micro processor controls where the software will become nearly as important as the hardware in determining energy performance.
There are several approaches to establishing efficiency standards for appliances. An article by Turiel et al. [101
describes and compares the different methodologies used to set standards. For a country considering developing standards,
this article describes the choice between a statistical approach to setting standards and an approach relying on product
ngineering and economic analysis.
However, each country's experience with appliance standards is different and adds insights to the broader issues.
Separate articles for Europe, Japan, Australia, Canada and California [ 1 1-15 ] explain the history, the process of
adoption, and the details of standards in those regions.
Two further articles describe the impacts of energy savings. It is essential to verify that the efficiency
improvements do indeed result in reduced energy use. The US has maintained a continuous process for establishing
standards since 1978. Geller' s [ 16] article estimates the national impacts of the US standards, both with respect
to energy savings and avoided costs. Meier [173 summarizes field measurements from several countries to show that
energy savings do indeed occur.
As indicated earlier, the status of appliance efficiency standards is constantly changing. Nadel [18], in the final
article of this edition, discusses the future of standards, test procedures, and energy labels.
Present status of residential appliance energy efficiency standards
an international review
Isaac Turiel
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
Received 22 September 1995; accepted 2 March 1996
Abstract
This paper discusses the present status of residential appliance energy efficiency standards around the world. A summary table will show the
status of energy efficiency standards in various countries. Recent activities concerning standards harmonization in North America and Europe will
be described. Some of the barriers to harmonization will also be discussed.
Keywords: Appliance; Energy efficiency; Harmonization; Standards
Appliance manufacturers' perspective on energy standards
Edward J. McInerney
General Electric Co.. Appliance Park, Louisville, KY 40266, USA
Vincent Anderson
Whirlpool Corporation, Evansville, 1N 47727, USA
Received 20 December 1995; accepted 21 August 1996
Abstract
Appliance energy efficiency standards have had a large and growing influence on the US appliance industry for the last fifteen years.
This article presents the perspectives gained by the two largest US appliance manufacturers as our companies have participated in the
process of determining the standard levels and then designed and manufactured improved efficiency products to comply with the new standards.
O 1997
Key words: US Department of Energy; DOE; Appliance energy standards; National Appliance Energy Conservation Act; NAECA; GE Appliances;
Whirlpool Appliances
Energy test procedures for appliances
Alan K. Meier
*Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
James E. Hill
National institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 208Y9. USA
Received 3 December 1995; revised 5 March 1996
Abstract
An energy test procedure is the technical foundation for all energy efficiency standards. It provides manufacturers, regulatory authorities,
and consumers a way of consistently evaluating energy use. The ideal test procedure reflects actual usage conditions without compromising
reliability and cost-effectiveness. Unfortunately, because these goals are contradictory, every test procedure is a compromise. Energy test
procedures exist for a wide range of appliances and often each country has its own unique test procedure. The procedures for refrigerators,
furnaces, air conditioners, clothes washers, and other appliances are described and compared. The emergence of microprocessor controls
complicates developing specifications for a single operating schedule and simple comparisons of energy performance. Energy test procedures
will face unprecedented pressures in the next decade as a consequence of international economic integration and technical innovations.
Kevwords: Energy test procedure; Energy efficiency; Standard; Energy use
Theory and methodology of appliance standards
Isaac Turiel, Terry Chan, James E. McMahon
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
Received 5 March 1996; revised 21 August 1996
Abstract
Interest in appliance energy efficiency standards is spreading from North America and Europe to many other countries around the world.
This article discusses two basic methodologies for performing energy and economic analyses that are used to develop energy efficiency
standards. Procedures for setting standards that are based upon those analyses are also discussed. Additionally, the future direction of
appliance standards is briefly discussed.
Keywords: Appliance; Energy efficiency; Methodology; Standard
Appliance energy standards in Europe
Paul Waide
PW Consulting, 500 route des Lucioles, Sophia Antipolis, 06560 Valbonne, France
Benoît Lebot
Agence de l 'Environnement et de la Maîtrise de l'Energie (Ademe). 500 route des Lucioes, Sophia Antipolis, 06560 Valhonne, France
Mark Hinnells
Environmental Change Unit, University of Oxford. Oxford, UK
Received 24 October 1995; accepted 28 February 1996
Abstract
In recent years there has been a revival of interest in appliance energy efficiency standards in Europe, in
particular within the European Union ' (EU). This paper summarizes the activity that has occurred across continental Europe,
from the EU to Russia, but focuses principally on Western Europe. The paper discusses the components of residential electricity
demand by end use and the role played by appliances, the energy consumption and energy efficiency trends for selected
appliances, the European appliance market, the development of the EU's mandatory energy labelling scheme and some of its
results, the testing and certification institutions in Europe, the EU's mandatory minimum energy efficiency standards proposal
for refrigerators and freezers but current preference for voluntary agreements, the maximum energy consumption standards in Russia,
the Swiss target-value approach, and the savings potentials of appliance energy efficiency standards for 'cold' appliances, 'wet' appliances,
leaking electricity, electric motors, and office lighting. Since this paper was written tin ]995), the EU has passed legislation to
introduce mandatory minimum energy efficiency standards for refrigerators and freezers that will enter into effect in 1999. The standards
are set at a level intended to ensure that models sold after 1999 will, on average, require 15'h less energy than the average of
models sold between 1991 and 1992 after normalization for storage volume and cooling service. Despite these activities, the paper
demonstrates that there remains a huge potential to save energy cost-effectively.
Keywords: Appliance standards; EU; Russia; Switzerland; Energy ]labelling; Energy savings potentials; Refrigerators; Clothes washers;
Clothes dryers; Dishwashers; Motors; Leaking electricity
Appliance standards in Japan
Hidetoshi Nakagami
Jyukankyo Research Institute, Inc., Hire-o Bldg., 3-12-40 Hiro-o, Shibuya-ku, Tokyo, I50, Japan
Barbara Litt
6567 Bartlett St. Pittsburgh, PA I5217, USA
Received 5 December 1995; accepted 5 March 1996
Abstract
Japan's first appliance energy efficiency standards were set in 1979 under the Energy Conservation Law and covered refrigerators and
household air conditioners. In 1994 a number of appliances were added to the list of specified equipment. After explaining the process
by which standards are established, we review the new standards for fluorescent lights, televisions, heat pump air conditioners, and
copiers. The new standards are expected to exert a major influence on appliance efficiencies in Japan, reversing a decade-long trend of
designers ignoring energy efficiency. Manufacturers will shift their product mix away from inefficient models.
Keywords: Energy efficiency; Standards; Japan; Refrigerators; Air conditioners; Fluorescent lights; Televisions; Copier
Appliance efficiency programs in Australia: labelling and standards
Lloyd Harrington
Energy Efficient Strategies, P.O. Box 515, Warragul, Vie. 3820. Australia
George Wilkenfeld
George Wilkenfeld and Associates, Y2 Spencer Road, Killara, NSW 2071, Australia
Abstract
Household appliance penetration and ownership in Australia is higher than in western Europe, and close to North American levels.
Most products are manufactured locally, by firms with international links and with access to both European and North American designs
and technology. A significant share of the market is imported, mainly from New Zealand, Asia and Europe. Because of the relative mildness
of the climate, appliances that carry an energy label (such as dishwashers, clothes washers, clothes dryers, and refrigerators and freezers)
account for a greater share of household energy use than in most other developed countries. The energy efficiency of appliances in Australia
increased steadily during the early 1980s, but the introduction of mandatory energy labelling in 1986 in some states saw a significant
increase in the rate of change. The mandatory government energy labelling program, which is in force in most states, now includes refrigerators,
freezers, room air conditioners, dishwashers, clothes washers and clothes dryers. A voluntary industry-based gas appliance energy
labelling program is also in place for gas water heaters and flued space heaters. The Australian energy labelling program is widely
regarded as among the most informative and salient in the world, and it may be extended to New Zealand over the next few years (many products
in NZ already carry the label as the Australian and NZ markets are closely integrated). Label recognition and use is very high among recent and
prospective appliance purchasers. The use of a static efficiency scale on the label, while assisting recognition and comprehension, has also
reduced the competitive pressure on suppliers, as efficiency improvements have pushed many models to the top of the rating scale. In 1995,
Australian energy ministers agreed to implement minimum energy performance standards (MEPS) for refrigerators, freezers, and electric storage
water heaters, to take effect in 1999. The levels are relatively moderate, and the effect will be to complement the energy labelling program
rather than to transform the energy efficiency of the market.
Keywords: Appliance efficiency programs; Household appliances; Australia; Mandatory energy labelling; Gas appliance labelling; Label
recognition
Regulating appliance energy efficiency in Canada: Some similarities and differences with the US
Jean-Pierre des Rosiers1, John Cockburn
Natural Resources Canada, 580 Booth Street, Ottawa, K1A OE4, Canada
Received 15 November 1995; accepted 12 December 1995
Abstract
The objective of Canada's energy efficiency regulations is to eliminate the most energy-inefficient energy-using
products from the Canadian market by establishing minimum efficiency standards for certain energy-using equipment.
Under the Energy Efficiency Act, regulations have been developed for a wide range of equipment. The Energy Efficiency
Regulations, which came into effect in February 1995, apply to equipment imported into Canada and equipment
manufactured in Canada and shipped from one province to another. Canada's energy- efficiency regulatory process differs
significantly from that of the United States in a number of ways. The Canadian regulations, for example, have different
verification, reporting, and importing requirements. Important distinctions also exist with respect to the legislative
authority for the Canadian regulatory program. Nevertheless, despite the differences in approaches, processes, climate,
energy prices and policy objectives, Canadian regulations are still greatly influenced by regulatory activities and trends in
the United States. The North American equipment market is an integrated one, with a constant two-way flow of products
across the Canada-US border. As a result, the market domination by US equipment manufacturers has a strong impact on
energy-efficiency levels in Canada. One of the key future thrusts of Canadian regulators will be to pursue greater
harmonization of regulatory requirements within Canada and among Canada, the United States, and Mexico, as well as
globally. The goal is to establish an effective, comprehensive, and consistent energy-efficiency regulatory regime that will
contribute to the achievement of economic and environmental objectives around the world.
Keywords: Carbon dioxide emissions; Canada; Compliance; Energy efficiency regulations; Harmonization; Importation;
Labelling; Minimum performance standards
The process of setting appliance standards
R. Michael Martin
California Energy Commission, 15I6 Ninth Street, MS 42. Sacramento, CA 95814, USA
Received 30 November 1995; accepted 8 April 1996
Abstract
The California Energy Commission was the first government agency in the United States to develop Appliance
Efficiency Standards. This article describes the origin of that agency and gives details of the successes and shortcomings of
its twenty-year history in this field. Many of the California Energy Commission's standards have been copied in
legislation and regulations of numerous other states, Canadian provinces, and the United States government. It is the
author's hope that by sharing details of some of the good things and some of the not-so-good things that have happened,
those who follow may be more successful than the author. The article concludes with a 'report card' that identifies several
successful programs that the author would like copied, and a few pitfalls that he hopes will be avoided.
Keywords: Appliance efficiency standards; California Energy Commission
National appliance efficiency standards in the USA:
cost-effective Federal regulations
Howard Geller
American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, Washington, DC 20036. USA
Received 11 December 1995; accepted 11 December 1995
Abstract
This paper reviews the status of Federal appliance and equipment efficiency standards in the United States and summarizes
the impacts these standards are having on consumers, manufacturers, and the nation. It shows that standards already adopted
are expected to save consumers $132 billion net and displace the need for 31 large (500 MW) baseload power plants by
2000. Existing standards also will cut carbon dioxide emissions in 2000 by about 26 million metric tons, equivalent to
about two percent of total US emissions or removing around 15 million automobiles from the road. According to analyses
by the US Department of Energy, appliance efficiency standards have not had a negative effect on appliance manufacturers.
The final section of the paper reviews the status of standards rulemakings underway as of early
Keywords. Efficiency standards; Regulation; Energy
Observed energy savings from appliance efficiency standards
Alan K. Meier
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, CA Y4720, USA
Received 5 December 1995; accepted 5 March 1996
Abstract
No country has directly measured the actual energy savings resulting from efficiency standards, but many
studies-mostly in North America-have indirectly observed savings. Methodological and practical obstacles to
observing savings include the difficulty of defining baseline energy use and isolating the impact of technical
improvements in efficiency from other changes in usage patterns. Laboratory measurements are cheaper and faster
than field measurements, but they still must be calibrated to field use. Energy savings resulting from refrigerator
efficiency improvements have been the most closely examined. Savings have been observed through laboratory
comparison field measurements, and utility bill analysis. Actual savings correspond closely to those predicted in
laboratory tests. Reductions in energy use from improvements in efficiency have also been observed for both
heating and cooling equipment. Laboratory-measured differences in efficiency generally give accurate estimates of
percentage savings, but give poor estimates of absolute savings. Energy savings from efficiency improvements
have also been observed for freezers, water heaters, and showerheads. The generally large percentage savings
observed in North America may also apply to Europe and Japan although the absolute savings will be smaller.
Savings from new standards created in these countries must be verified.
Keywords: Actual energy savings; Efficiency standards; Laboratory measurements; Field measurements; Utility
bill analysis
The future of standards
Steven Nadel
American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, 1001 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Suite 801,
Washington, DC 20036, USA
Received 3 December 1995: accepted 10 October 1996
Abstract
In this paper, we discuss the future of efficiency standards, including revisions of existing standards, the spread
of standards to other countries and other products, the use of voluntary standards and other complements to
mandatory efficiency standards, international harmonization of standards, manufacturers' reactions to standards,
how standards may be used to promote classes of products that save energy, and evaluation and documentation of
standards. We conclude that trends towards increased use of standards in terms of number of countries and number
of products covered are likely to continue, along with periodic updates to standards and growth in programs that
complement standards.
Keywords: Standards; Energy efficiency standards; Voluntary standards; Mandatory standards; International
standards harmonization
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